Table 1. Best practices for golf course planning, design, and construction

Planning
Step	Description
Assemble Team	The team should include, but not be limited to, a golf course architect, golf course superintendent, clubhouse architect, irrigation engineer, environmental engineer, energy analyst, economic consultant, civil engineer, soil scientist, golf course builder, and a legal team.
Define Objectives	Identify realistic goals, formulate a timeline, etc.
Conduct a Feasibility Study	Evaluate finances, environmental issues, water availability and sources, and energy, materials, and labor needs. Identify applicable government regulations.
Select Site	Site should meet project goals and expectations. Identify all strengths and weakness of each potential site. During site selection, any site constraints, such as the presence of listed species or valuable habitat, should be identified.
Design
Retain a Project Manager/Superintendent	This person is responsible for integrating sustainable practices in the development, maintenance, and operation of the course.
Retain a Golf Course Architect	An experienced golf course architect is the person primarily responsible for design of the course including preservation of existing native vegetation, design of course features, and selection of appropriate turf species/varieties in conjunction with the superintendent.
	Existing native landscapes should remain intact as much as possible. Consider adding supplemental native vegetation to enhance existing vegetation alongside lengthy fairways and out-of-play areas. Nuisance, invasive, and exotic plants should be removed and replaced with native species adapted to the area.
	Greens: Should have plenty of sunlight and be well drained. Greens should be big enough to have several hole locations that can handle expected traffic. Native push-up green design can provide an adequate playing surface provided there is adequate surface drainage, sun and air movement. USGA putting greens should follow specifications in published in A Guide to Constructing The USGA Putting Green.
	Grass selection: Species should be selected based on climate, including winter hardiness, environmental and site conditions, and species adaptability to those conditions, including disease resistance, drought tolerance, spring greenup, and traffic tolerance.
	Bunkers: The number and size of bunkers depend on considerations, such as the resources available for daily maintenance. For each bunker consider: The need for drainage. Entry/exit points and how these will affect wear-and-tear patterns. The proper color, size, and shape of bunker sands to meet needs. New bunker construction techniques can be researched to see if they satisfy stakeholders’ needs.
Design Irrigation System	Hire a professional irrigation consultant/designer (preferably a member of the American Society of Irrigation Consultants), if possible, to design the irrigation system. Keep in mind the different water needs of greens, tees, fairways, roughs, and native areas. Consider the topography, prevalent wind speeds, and wind direction when spacing the heads. Choose the most efficient type of irrigation system considering available resources. The “Irrigation” chapter of this document provides detailed information on irrigation-related BMPs.
Construction
Select Qualified Contractors	Use only qualified contractors who are experienced in the special requirements of golf course construction. Members of the Golf Course Builders Association of America make great candidates.
Safeguard Environment	Follow all design phase plans and environmental laws. Soil stabilization techniques should be rigorously employed to maximize sediment control and minimize soil erosion. Temporary construction compounds and pathways should be built in a manner that reduces environmental impacts.
Install Irrigation System	Installation should consider the need to move equipment and bury pipe while maintaining the original soil surface grade to minimize the potential for erosion.
Establish Turfgrass	Turfgrass establishment methods and timing should allow for the most efficient progress of work, while optimizing resources and preventing erosion from bare soils before grass is established.

Table 2. Sprinkler coverage and spacing considerations

Sprinkler Spacing	Advantages/Disadvantages
Manual and/or single row sprinkler coverage Typically use long radius sprinkler spacing > 90 ft.	Scheduling coefficient values are high and distribution uniformity values low. Overall, this type of fairway coverage results in inefficient irrigation.
Double row sprinkler coverage Sprinkler throw distances range from 80 to 90 ft., increasing the effective width of coverage and allowing for individual sprinkler control based on the terrain of the fairway area.	Offers an improvement in efficiency over single row coverage. However, manual hand watering or other types of supplemental watering may be needed outside the fairway area and into the extended rough.
Multi-row sprinkler coverage Incorporates three to five rows. Typically, the spacing of sprinklers ranges from 55 to 75 ft.	Offers the best method to control and conserve water and provides the user the best ability to respond to specific moisture requirements of a given fairway area.

Table 3. Available soil moisture and infiltration rates for common soil textures

Soil Texture	Soil Type	Typical plant-available moisture per foot of soil depth (inches)	Infiltration rate (inches h-1)
Light, sandy	Coarse sand Fine sand	0.25 – 0.75 0.75 – 1.00	Fast (0.5 – 6+)
Medium, loamy	Loamy sand Sandy loam Fine sandy loam Silt loam	1.10 – 1.20 1.25 – 1.40 1.50 – 2.00 2.00 – 2.50	Moderate (0.25 – 0.5)
Heavy, clay	Silty clay loam Silty clay Clay	1.80 – 2.00 1.50 – 1.70 1.20 – 1.50	Slow (0.1 – 0.25)

Table 4. Estimated ET replacement of various turfgrass surfaces in Virginia

Types of Turf		May	June	July	Aug	Sept
		Estimated ET Requirement (inches per week1)
Cool Season	Rough	0.6	1.20	1.50	1.30	0.80
	Shaded Area	0.3	0.60	0.75	0.65	0.40
	Fairway	0.55	1.10	1.35	1.20	0.75
	Green	0.50	1.00	1.10	1.10	0.80
Warm Season	Rough	0.45	0.85	1.05	1.00	0.55
	Fairway	0.35	0.75	0.90	0.90	0.50
	Green	0.30	0.70	0.80	0.80	0.70
1These estimates assume that only 50% of monthly rainfall is effectively soil absorbed and becomes available for plant uptake.

Table 5. Criteria for high potential to affect N transport to surface water as related to natural factors

Natural Factors	Criteria
Surface water proximity	Adjacent land within 500 feet that slopes into the drainage network.
Soil aeration	Excessive, somewhat excessive, and well drained soils
Mobilization in solution	Soil hydrogeologic group C and D
Mobilization with sediment	K factor near 0.69 combined with soils in hydrogeologic groups C and D
Land slope	Slopes > 9%
Flooding frequency	Frequent flooding as defined by NRCS

Table 6. Criteria for high potential to affect N translocation to groundwater as related to natural factors

Natural Factors	Criteria
Soil aeration	Excessive, somewhat excessive, or well drained soils
Soil texture	Sandy, sandy-skeletal, or fragmental family particle size
Depth to aquifer	Less than 50 feet to the top of the saturated aquifer
Hydrologic recharge area	>20 inches to accumulations of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

Table 7. Secondary macronutrients

Nutrient	Role	Sources
Calcium	Primarily a component of cells walls and structure.	Gypsum Limestone Calcium chloride
Magnesium	Central ion in the chlorophyll molecule and chlorophyll synthesis.	S-Po-Mg Dolomitic limestone Magnesium sulfate
Sulfur	Metabolized into the amino acid cysteine, which is used in various proteins and enzymes.	Ammonium sulfate Elemental sulfur Gypsum Potassium sulfate

Table 8. General seasonal N strategies for golf turf management

Turf Use	Grass Type	Maximum N Rate Per Application – WSN	Total Annual N Rate – SAN
		(lbs/1,000 ft2)
Greens		0.7 (b)	3 – 6
Tees		0.7 (b)	2 – 5
Fairways (normal management)	Cool-season Warm-season	0.7 (c) 0.7 (c)	2 – 3 3 – 4
Fairways (intensive management)	Cool-season Warm-season	0.5 (d) 0.5 (d)	3 – 4 3.5 – 4.5
Overseeding fairways	Warm-season	0.5	1.25
Roughs		0.7 (e)	1 – 3
(b) Greens and Tees – Per application timing must be a minimum of 30 days between applications. A rate of 0.9 lbs/1,000 ft2 of total N may be applied for cool season grasses or 1.0 lbs/1,000 ft2 of total N may be applied for warm season grasses using a material containing slowly available forms of N. (c) Fairways (normal management; non-irrigated or irrigated) – Per application timing must be a minimum of 30 days between applications. Total N application rates of 0.9 lbs/1,000 ft2 of total N may be applied for cool seasons grasses or 1.0 lbs/1,000 ft2 of total N may be applied for warm season grasses using a material containing slowly available forms of N. (d) Fairways (intensive management; irrigated) – Per application timing must be a minimum of 15 days between applications. This option requires optimized timing of more frequent applications of N with lesser rates per application. Alternatively, a maximum application rate of 0.9 lbs/1,000 ft2 of total N for cool season grasses or 1.0 lbs/1,000 ft2 of total N for warm season grasses using a material containing slowly available forms of N may be applied with a minimum of 30 days between applications. (e) Foliar fertilizer may be applied to warm season grasses within 30 days prior to the first killing frost in the fall, at a rate not to exceed 0.1 lbs/1,000 ft2 of N per application. This application must be accounted for tin the total annual N rate.

Table 9. Mowing HOC recommendations by species and location

Turf Species	Greens (Healthy Maintenance)	Greens (Tournament Play)	Tees, Collars, Approaches	Fairways
	(in inches)
Creeping bentgrass	0.125 – 0.180	0.090 – 0.135	0.250 – 0.500	0.350 – 0.625
Hybrid bermudagrass	0.125 – 0.180	0.100 – 0.140	0.375 – 0.500	0.375 – 0.625
Common bermudagrass	N/A	N/A	0.500 – 0.625	0.500 – 0.750
Zoysiagrass	N/A	N/A	0.400 – 0.625	0.500 – 0.750
Perennial ryegrass	N/A	N/A	0.375 – 0.500	0.375 – 0.625
Kentucky bluegrass	N/A	N/A	0.500 – 0.750	0.625 – 1.00

Table 10. Recommended mowing heights for roughs

Kentucky bluegrass	P. ryegrass	Tall fescue	Fine fescues	Bermudagrass
(in inches)
1.0 – 6.0	1.0 – 6.0	2.0 – 6.0	2.5 – 6.0	0.75 – 2.5
For intermediate, primary and secondary roughs. Intermediate rough cuts are defined as a narrow (<10′) step-up cut immediately adjacent to the fairway. HOC for intermediate roughs are usually in the lower part of the specified ranges, typically 1.0–1.75″.

Table 11. Aeration practices

Method	Compaction relief	Surface disruption	Water/air movement	Disruption of play
Hollow-tine aeration	High	Medium	High	Medium to High
Solid-tine aeration	Low	Low	Low to Medium	Low to Medium
Deep-tine aeration	Medium	Medium	High	Low to Medium
Deep drilling	Medium	Medium	High	High
Sand injection	Medium	Low	High	Low
High-pressure water injection	None	Low	Medium	Low
Air injection	Low-Medium	Low	Medium-High	Low

Table 12. Core size options for aeration

Tine Size (in.)	Spacing (in.)	Holes/ft2	Surface Area of One Tine (in.)	Percent Surface Area Affected (Outside tine)
1/4	1.252	100	0.049	3.4%
1/4	2.52	25	0.049	0.9%
1/2	1.252	100	0.196	13.6%
1/2	2.52	25	0.196	3.4%
5/8	2.52	25	0.307	5.3%

Table 13. Surface cultivation practices

Method	Compaction relief	Surface disruption	Water/air movement	Disruption of play
Vertical mowing	Low	Medium to High	Medium	Low to High
Spiking/slicing	None	Low	Low	None

Table 14. Light and frequent topdressing rates

Quantity (ft3/1,000 ft2)	Quantity (lbs/1,000 ft2)	Quantity (tons/acre)	Depth of Application (inches)
0.50	50	1.1	0.006
0.75	75	1.7	0.009
1	100	2.2	0.012

Table 15. Common golf turfgrass diseases

Conditions Favoring Disease Development	Disease (Common Names)
Cool-season turfgrasses
Low N	dollar spot anthracnose brown ring patch
High N	brown patch Pythium diseases snow molds (Microdochium patch and Typhula blight)
General	Fairy ring caused by various basidomycete fungi (both cool-and warm-season grasses) leaf spots and melting out
Warm-season turfgrasses
Low N	dollar spot
High N	large patch leaf spots
General	spring dead spot